Working Papers

Heartbeat: Measuring Active User Base and Potential User Interest in FLOSS Projects

Submitted to IFIP OSS 2009. This paper presents a novel method and algorithm to measure the size of an open source project’s user base and the level of potential user interest that it generates. Previously unavailable download data at a daily resolution confirms hypothesized patterns related to release cycles. In short, regular users rapidly down- load the software after a new release giving a way to measure the active user base. In contrast, potential new users download the application independently of the re- lease cycle, and the daily download figures tend to plateau at this rate when a release has not been made for some time. An algorithm for estimating these measures from download time series is demonstrated and the measures are examined over time in two open source projects.

Wiggins, A., Howison, J., and Crowston, K. (2008). Replication of FLOSS Research as eResearch. Abstract accepted to Oxford e-Research Conference 2008, Oxford, UK, 11-13 September, 2008.

We are working to introduce the ideas of eResearch to a multi-disciplinary research domain: those researchers examining Free/Libre and Open Source Software (FLOSS) and its development (Howison, Wiggins, & Crowston, 2008). The first phase of this work focused on building a repository for data on FLOSS teams, FLOSSmole (Howison, Conklin, & Crowston, 2006), and collaborating with other nascent data repositories in the field. Recently we have begun a second phase, which is to introduce another established principle of eResearch, that of broader collaboration through shared workflows accessing these data repositories. To provide an example of the potential value of this principle, we are replicating seminal FLOSS papers using eResearch approaches. This paper describes research outcomes and lessons learned from translating published literature into eResearch workflows.

Crowston, K., Wei, K., Howison, J. and Wiggins, A. (2008). Free/Libre Open Source Software: What we know and what we do not know.

We review the empirical research on Free/Libre Open Source Software (FLOSS) development and use to assess the state of the literature.Oour review is organized around an input-mediator-output-input (IMOI) model. We start with a description of the articles selected for the review. We then discuss findings of this literature categorized into issues pertaining to inputs (e.g., member characteristics, technology use and project characteristics), processes (software development and social processes), emergent states (e.g., trust and task related states) and outputs (e.g. team performance, FLOSS implementation and project evolution). Based on this review, we suggest research questions, including methodological and theoretical issues, to guide future inquiry in this area.

Crowston, K. & Fagnot, I. (2008). The motivational arc of massive virtual collaboration. Submitted to the IFIP WG 9.5 International Working Conference on Virtuality and Society: Massive Virtual Communities.

Massive virtual collaborations (MVC) involve large numbers of mostly unpaid contributors collectively creating new content. Wikipedia is the most dramatic example of MVC; smaller-scale examples include contributors to blogs and discussion groups and teams of programmers and users developing free/libre open source software (FLOSS). In this paper, we propose a model of motivations for contribution to MVC that integrates various theoretical perspectives. The model extends prior work by distinguishing three different levels of contribution to projects (initial, sustained and meta) and by capturing the dynamic and recursive effects of contributions on emergent individual and project states.

The role of face-to-face meetings in technology-supported self-organizing distributed teams

Crowston, K., Howison, J., Masango, C., & Eseryel, U. Y. (Under review). The role of face-to-face meetings in technology-supported self-organizing distributed teams IEEE Transactions on Professional Communications. Abstract We examine the role of face-to-face meetings in the context of technology-supported self-organizing distributed or virtual teams, specifically Free/Libre Open Source Software (FLOSS) development teams. Based on a qualitative inductive analysis of data from interviews and observations at FLOSS conferences, we identify a variety of settings in which developers meet face-to-face, activities performed in these settings and benefits obtained. Contrary to the conventional wisdom, FLOSS developers generally do not meet face-to-face until the project is well under way. An additional benefit of face-to-face meetings is time away from a regular job and speed of interaction for certain kinds of tasks.

Crowston, K., Heckman, R. & Misiolek, E. A structurational perspective on leadership in Free/Libre Open Source Software teams.

In this conceptual paper, we present a structuration-based theory of leadership behaviours in virtual teams, that is to say, in self-organizing technology-supported small groups such as Free/Libre Open Source Software development teams. Such teams are often composed of members of relatively equal status or who are so disparate in background that formal organizational status seems irrelevant, reducing the usual leadership cues provided by organizational status and title. Building on behavioural leadership theory and structuration theory, we present a two-order theory of leadership. It describes four classes of first-order leadership behaviours (task coordination, substantive task contribution, group maintenance, and boundary spanning) and defines second-order leadership as behaviour that influences changes in the structure that guides group action. Specifically, we suggest that second-order leadership behaviours are those that build structures of signification in the form of interpretive schema, structures of domination in the form of role structures and structures of legitimation in the form of rules and norms. We argue that second-order leadership is enabled by first-order leadership, is therefore action embedded, and is grounded in processes that define the social identity of the group. We propose that effective teams will exhibit a paradoxical combination of shared, distributed first-order leadership complemented by strong, concentrated, and centralized second-order leadership. We conclude by suggesting future research that might be conducted to test and further elaborate our theory.

Crowston, K., Li, Q., Wei, K., Eseryel, U. Y. & Howison, J. Self-organization of teams for free/libre open source software development.

This paper provides empirical evidence about how free/libre open source software development teams self-organize their work. Following a case study methodology, we examined developer interaction data from three active and successful FLOSS projects using qualitative research methods, specifically inductive content analysis, to identify the task-assignment mechanisms used by the participants. We found that ‘self-assignment’ was the most common mechanism across three FLOSS projects. This mechanism is consistent with expectations for distributed and largely volunteer teams. We conclude by discussing whether these emergent practices can be usefully transferred to mainstream practice and indicating directions for future research.

Emergent decision-making practices in technology-supported self-organizing distributed teams.

We seek to identify work practices that make technology-supported self-organizing distributed (or virtual) teams (TSSODT for short) effective in producing outputs satisfactory to their sponsors, meeting the needs of their members and continuing to function. A particularly important practice for team effectiveness is decision making: are the right decisions made at the right time to get the work done in a way that satisfies team sponsors, keeps contributors happy and engaged, and enables continued team success? In this research-in-progress paper, we report on an inductive qualitative analysis of 120 decision episodes taken by 2 Free/libre Open Source Software development teams (the completed paper will include 360 episodes from 6 teams). Our analysis revealed differences in the performance of the two teams that seems to be related to differences in overall project effectiveness.

Crowston, K., Scozzi, B., and Buonocore, S. (2002). An exploratory study of Open Source Software development team structure.

We examine the structure of Open Source Software (OSS) development teams as part of a project on success factors for distributed work teams. Several authors have described OSS teams as having a hierarchical structure: a small team of core developers who oversee the development and contribute most of the code, a larger group of co-developers who contribute sporadically by reviewing or modifying code or by contributing bug fixes, and an even larger group of active users who contribute bug reports, but not code. The contributions of active users are hypothesized to be important to the success of OSS projects. The goal of this project is to determine how well this model applies to a wider range of OSS projects by examining participation in the software bug fixing process. The bug fixing process was studied by inductively coding the steps involved in fixing various bugs as recorded in the SourceForge bug tracking system. We hypothesized that different groups of developers could be distinguished by the type and...

A Structurational Model of the Dynamics of Free/Libre Open Source Software Development Teams

Research on human and social behaviour is increasingly characterized by a focus on dy-namics: on the evolution of formal and informal organizations over time. In this paper, we pre-sent a structurational model of the dynamics of distributed ICT-supported teams of Free/Libre Open Source Software (FLOSS) developers. The model includes the dynamics through which members form shared mental models, informal norms and formal rules, how individual roles and leadership emerge, and how these structures guide developers’ behaviours. We focus on these aspects of team dynamics because they have been identified as critical to distributed team effec-tiveness.

Working Area for SPIP

A place to gather materials and versions for the SPIP Paper.

Crowston, K. & Annabi, H. (2005). Effective Work Practices for FLOSS Development: A Model and Propositions

We review the literature on Free/Libre Open Source Software (FLOSS) development and on software development, distributed work and teams more generally to develop a theoretical process model to explain the performance of FLOSS teams, which are special cases of distributed teams. The proposed model is based on Hackman’s [1986] model of effectiveness of work teams, with coordination theory [Malone and Crowston, 1994] and collective mind [Weick and Roberts, 1993] to extend Hackman’s model by elaborating team practices relevant to effectiveness in software development. We propose a set of propositions to guide further research.

Crowston, K. (2005). A coordination theory analysis of bug fixing in proprietary and free/libre open source software.

In this paper, I use coordination theory to analyze the bug fixing process in the proprietary operating systems development group of a large mini-computer manufacturer and for the free/libre open source software Linux kernel. Three approaches to identifying dependencies and coordination mechanisms are presented. Mechanisms analyzed include those for task assignment, resource sharing and managing dependencies between modules of source code. The proprietary development organization assigned problem reports to engineers based on the module that appeared to be in error, since engineers only worked on particular modules. Alternative task assignment mechanisms include assignment to engineers based on workload or voluntary assignment, as in Linux. In the proprietary process, modules of source code were not shared, but rather “owned” by one engineer, thus reducing the need for coordination. In Linux, where multiple developers can work on the same modules, alternative resource sharing mechanism have been developed to manage source code. Finally, the proprietary developers managed dependencies between modules informally, relying on their personal knowledge of which other engineers used their code. The Linux process allows developers to change code in multiple modules, but emphasizes modularity to reduce the need to do so.

Work on Academy 2005 paper

Space to store documents about the Academy 2005 paper on face to face interaction.

Org Science special edition

A place to gather the information and resources for the Nov. 2005 Org Science deadline.

Working area for HICSS 2006 (core-periph)

 

Core and periphery in Free and Open Source Software team communications

Paper submitted to HICSS 2006

FLOSS lifecycle notes

A place to store thoughts on the dynamics of FLOSS projects.

Role of face-to-face meetings

The role of face-to-face meetings in technology-supported self-organizing distributed teams. Intended for submission to IEEE Transactions on Professional Communications. Word document.

James' 18 Sept 2006 edits to F2F paper

 

Self-organization of teams for free/libre open source software development

Self-organization of teams for free/libre open source software development. Revised paper for Information and Software Technology special issue on “Understanding the Social Side of Software Engineering: Qualitative Software Engineering Research”. Word format.

Letter to IS&T editor

Letter to the editor of the Information and Software Technology special issue describing the revisions. Word format.